Carl von Clausewitz (German: Carl Philipp Gottfried von Clausewitz; June 1, 1780, Burg — November 16, 1831, Breslau) was a Prussian soldier, military theorist, and historian, and major general (1818). Author of the seminal work on military theory «On War» (German: Vom Kriege), which had an enormous influence on the development of military science worldwide. He is considered one of the founders of modern military science and strategy.
Biography
Early Years and Education
Carl Philipp Gottfried von Clausewitz was born on June 1, 1780, in the town of Burg, near Magdeburg, into a family of modest noble standing. His father was a retired lieutenant of the Prussian army. From the age of twelve, Clausewitz was in military service, beginning as an ensign in the 34th Infantry Regiment.
From 1801 to 1803 Clausewitz studied at the Berlin Military Academy, where he came under the strong influence of General Gerhard von Scharnhorst, who became his mentor and patron. On graduating, Clausewitz was commissioned as a lieutenant and appointed adjutant to Prince August of Prussia.
Military Career
Clausewitz took part in the war against Napoleonic France in 1806, and was taken prisoner after the Prussian army’s defeat at Jena and Auerstedt. After his release from captivity in 1808, he returned to Prussia, where he became an active participant in the military reforms carried out by Scharnhorst and Gneisenau.
From 1810 to 1812 Clausewitz taught at the Berlin War College, where his lectures on strategy and tactics were highly regarded. In 1812, protesting Prussia’s alliance with Napoleon, he left Prussian service and joined the Russian army, where he received the rank of colonel.
During the Patriotic War of 1812 and the Russian army’s foreign campaigns of 1813-1814, Clausewitz proved himself a talented staff officer. He took part in drafting operational plans and was one of the authors of the convention concluded between the Russian general Diebitsch and the Prussian general Yorck at Tauroggen, which marked the beginning of Germany’s war of liberation against Napoleon.
In 1815 Clausewitz returned to Prussian service and, as a colonel, was appointed chief of staff of the Prussian army’s III Corps under General Thielmann. He took part in the battle of Ligny and in the pursuit of the French after Waterloo. In 1818 he was promoted to major general and made director of the General War School in Berlin (later the Prussian War Academy), a post he held until 1830.
Final Years
In 1830 Clausewitz was appointed chief of staff of the Prussian army commanded by Field Marshal Gneisenau. The army was sent to Prussia’s eastern border to monitor the Polish uprising of 1830-1831. During this campaign Clausewitz contracted cholera and died on November 16, 1831, in Breslau (now Wrocław, Poland). He is buried in a cemetery in Breslau.
Theoretical Works
Clausewitz’s principal work is the book «On War» (German: Vom Kriege), published posthumously by his widow, Marie von Clausewitz, in 1832-1834. The work offers a profound philosophical analysis of the nature of war and its relationship to politics and society.
Among Clausewitz’s other significant works:
- «The Campaign of 1812 in Russia» — an analysis of the strategy and tactics of the Napoleonic wars
- «Principles of War»
- «Strategy»
- «Notes on Prussia in Her Great Catastrophe»
Key Concepts
Clausewitz developed a number of fundamental concepts in military theory that remain relevant today:
War as a Continuation of Politics
One of Clausewitz’s most famous statements holds that «war is nothing but a continuation of politics by other means.» This thesis emphasizes the subordination of military action to political goals and decisions.
Absolute and Real War
Clausewitz distinguished between «absolute war» (an ideal type characterized by the unlimited application of force) and «real war» (limited by political, social, and material factors).
Friction
The concept of «friction» (German: Friktion) describes the unforeseen difficulties that arise in the course of military action, which set real war apart from war on paper. For Clausewitz, «friction» encompasses factors of uncertainty, chance, and error.
Center of Gravity
The «center of gravity» (German: Schwerpunkt) is a key concept denoting the source of an enemy’s strength, toward which one’s main effort should be directed. This might be the enemy’s army, its capital, its allies, and so on.
The Culminating Point of Victory
The point beyond which further advance becomes disadvantageous or dangerous for the attacking side, and forces must instead be consolidated to hold the gains already achieved.
Influence and Legacy
The influence of Clausewitz’s theories on military thought is hard to overstate. His writings have been studied, and continue to be studied, at military academies around the world. Among those significantly influenced by Clausewitz’s ideas:
- Helmuth von Moltke the Elder, creator of the modern German military machine
- Alfred von Schlieffen, author of the famous Schlieffen Plan
- Erich Ludendorff, one of the leading German commanders of the First World War
- Ferdinand Foch, Marshal of France, supreme commander of the Allied forces at the end of the First World War
- Basil Liddell Hart, the British military theorist, though he criticized certain aspects of Clausewitz’s theory
- Vladimir Lenin, who actively made use of the concept of war as a continuation of politics
- Mao Zedong, whose theory of guerrilla warfare draws heavily on Clausewitz
Clausewitz’s theories continue to influence modern military planning and strategic thinking, as well as research in international relations and political science.
Criticism
Despite his enormous influence, Clausewitz’s ideas have been, and continue to be, subject to criticism:
- Some critics argue that his concept of «absolute war» indirectly contributed to the escalation of violence in the wars of the 19th and 20th centuries
- Basil Liddell Hart accused Clausewitz of overemphasizing decisive battle and underestimating indirect approaches
- Martin van Creveld and other theorists point to the limited applicability of Clausewitz’s theories to modern asymmetric conflicts and low-intensity warfare
Even so, even his critics acknowledge Clausewitz’s significance for the development of military theory and the continuing relevance of many of his ideas for understanding the nature of armed conflict.
Famous Quotations
Clausewitz left behind numerous aphoristic statements that have become part of military and political culture:
- «War is nothing but a continuation of politics by other means.»
- «War is an act of violence intended to compel our opponent to fulfil our will.»
- «Everything in war is very simple, but the simplest thing is difficult.»
- «One should never engage in a minor war apart from the larger one.»
- «Defense is the stronger form of waging war than attack.»
- «Courage is the first requirement of a commander; it is the noble metal without which no good coin can be minted.»